Regional Information

Geography: Made up of six groups of volcanic and raised coral islands, the Republic of Palau (also spelled Belau or Pelew) is located 400 miles east of the Philippines. Its 340 islands have a total land area of 193 square miles (Ridgell, 1995). Palau is the westernmost archipelago in the chain formerly known as the Caroline Islands, which includes Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae (the present day Federated States of Micronesia). All but six of Palau’s islands are enclosed in a large lagoon surrounded by a barrier reef, including the famous “rock islands” which number over 300 (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014i). A total of eight islands are inhabited: four volcanic/limestone islands and four outer islands (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014f).

History: Somewhere between 2,000 to 3,000 years ago, Palau’s first inhabitants arrived from diverse locations, including Malays from Indonesia, Melanesians from New Guinea, people from the Philippines, and some Polynesians from outlying Polynesian islands in Micronesia (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014i). For about 100 years beginning in the late 1700s Palau had sporadic contact with shipwrecked Europeans and beachcombers as well as occasional visits from whalers and traders. In 1886 Spain formally claimed Palau (and the rest of the “Caroline Islands”) as a colony, although Spanish missionaries did not arrive until 1891 (Ridgell, 1995). At the conclusion of the Spanish-American war in 1899 Germany took possession of the islands, which it held until 1914. At the outbreak of World War I Japan moved to seize Germany’s colonial possessions in Micronesia, administering them under a mandate from the League of Nations (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014i). Fortified by Japan during World War II, Palau was the site of a famous World War II battle at Beliliou (Peleliu) which lasted for two months (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014f). In 1947, the United Nations created a strategic-area trusteeship encompassing more than 2,000 islands situated between 1° and 22° N latitude and 130° and 172° E longitude (an area of about 3 million square miles). Administered by the U.S., the U.N. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) comprised the Marshall Islands, Palau, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, Kosrae, and the Marianas islands (excluding Guam) (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014k). In 1981 a constitution and a presidential form of government were adopted. After more than a decade of unsuccessful attempts, the United States signed a Compact of Free Association (COFA) with Palau in 1993. In 1994 Palau became a sovereign nation (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014i).

Demographics: Palau’s population in 2014 is estimated to be approximately 21,000 (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014f). The main population centers are located on the islands of Babelthuap (Babeldaob) & Koror. Koror city, the largest city in the country, was the capital until 2006 when the seat of government was moved to Melekeok on Babelthuap, where the international airport is located (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014i). Approximately 39% of the population are foreign nationals (Wasem, 2004), largely from the Philipines and Taiwan. Palau has three official languages: Palauan, Sonsorolese-Tobian, and English. Palauan is spoken by approximately two-thirds of the population; Sonsorolese-Tobian is limited to Sonsorol Island in the southwest. To this day Palau is a strong matrilineal society, with women controlling land, money, and titles. Christianity is the major religion on Palau. Approximately half of the population is Roman Catholic and a quarter is protestant. Palau has a near total literacy rate. Palauans tend to emigrate more than residents of other Pacific Island countries, and there are significant communities of Palauans in Guam, Hawaiʻi, and the U.S. west coast (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014i).

Economy: Since World War II, most people on Palau have worked for the government. Some people engage in near-shore fishing and subsistence farming of taro, sweet potato, and cassava. Palau has no major export crops (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014f). The Palauan government generates some revenue through licensing foreign commercial tuna fishing vessels. In addition to tuna, Palau exports a small amount of clothing (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014i). Expansion of air travel in the Pacific and Palau’s proximity to Guam, a major destination for East Asian tourists, has caused rapid growth in its tourism industry. Revenues from tourism together with significant U.S. Government aid received under the COFA are two reasons why the population has a per capita income roughly double that of the Philippines and much of Micronesia. Major imports include machinery and equipment, fuels, metals, and foodstuffs (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014f).

Political Affiliation: Palau is an independent country (Wasem, 2004). Since 1981 Palau has had internal self-government, while under the COFA the United States is responsible for external security (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014i). In exchange for defense and foreign aid, the COFA entitles the U.S. government to unfettered access to Palau’s land and waterways for strategic purposes (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014f). Palauan nationals are not U.S. citizens, although they may freely migrate to the U.S. under the terms of the COFA (Wasem, 2004).

Geography: The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) are a group of 607 islands (FSM Government, 2014a) in the North Pacific Ocean about three-quarters of the way from Hawaiʻi to Indonesia. The islands have a total land area of 271 square miles (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014d). Unique attributes of each of the FSM’s four states will be discussed separately below.

FSM History European ships visited the islands beginning the 17th century. In 1686 Spanish navigator Francisco Lazcano named the chain (together with Palau) “the Caroline Islands” after Carlos II of Spain (Room, 1988). In the 18th century the islands were visited by whaling ships. Spain formalized their claim to the islands in 1886 and held them as a colonial possession until the end of the Spanish-American War, when they were sold to Germany (Hezel, 2003). At the outbreak of World War I Japan moved to seize Germany’s colonial possessions in Micronesia, seeking to incorporate the islands into its empire. Under a mandate from the League of Nations, Japan administered the Caroline Islands until the end of World War II, when control passed to the United Nations (U.N.). In 1947, the U.N. created a strategic-area trusteeship encompassing more than 2,000 islands situated between 1° and 22° N latitude and 130° and 172° E longitude (an area of about 3 million square miles). Administered by the U.S., the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) comprised the Marshall Islands, Palau, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, Kosrae, and the Marianas Islands (excluding Guam) (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014k). Beginning in 1969 representatives from what would become the FSM entered into self-government negotiations, culminating in their unification under the constitution drafted in 1975 and put into effect in 1979. In 1991 the UN recognized the FSM as an independent nation, although they continue to rely heavily on foreign financial aid which they receive as part of the Compact of Free Association (COFA) signed with the United States in 1986 and renewed in 2004 (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014d). The FSM has no official language. There are 8 distinct local languages and many dialects; English is widely spoken, especially for trade and government functions (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014g).

State of Yap: The volcanic islands of Gagil-Tamil, Maap, Rumung, and Yap, are located within a coral reef and collectively comprise the Yap islands (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014l). Located 280 miles east of Palau and 500 miles southwest of Guam, The Yap islands, together with one other volcanically raised island and eight major atolls, comprise the state of Yap. The state covers 78,000 square miles of ocean in the Western Pacific and has a total land area of 46 square miles (Yap State Government, 2011). The earliest inhabitants of Yap most likely came from Eastern Indonesia or the Philippines around 1500 B.CE or earlier (Yap Visitors Bureau, 2014). Yap is famous for its stone money, which was quarried in Palau and brought to the state in oceangoing canoes. The stones are large and round with a hole in the middle, made to be placed on poles. There are about 12,000 pieces remaining in Yap, and it is illegal to remove them (Ridgell, 1995). In 1525 Dioga Da Rocha from Portugal was the first European to visit Yap; various other European navigators would pass through the islands of Yap over the next 2 centuries. In 1731 the first Catholic missionaries came to Yap from Guam (Yap Visitors Bureau, 2014). Over the next century or so Yap was nominally controlled by Spain. From 1800-1860 the Yapese traded sea cucumbers with British traders and other Europeans. In 1869 the Germans established their first permanent trading station in Yap (Yap Visitors Bureau, 2014). In the late 19th century an Irish-American named David O’Keefe made a small fortune by quarrying stone money in Palau and bringing it to Yap in a Chinese sailboat (Ridgell, 1995). The people of the Yap islands have a culture and language (Yapese) which are more closely related to the Melanesian language and culture than other Micronesian peoples (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014l). People on the outer islands of Yap state speak Nuclear Micronesian languages similar to outer-island Chuuk and Saipan Carolinian (Ridgell, 1995). Approximately one-tenth of the FSM population (about 11,200) people lives in Yap State (FSM Government, 2014b); ethnically Yapese comprise 5.7% and Yap outer islanders 5.1% of the total FSM population (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014d).

State of Chuuk: Similar to the state of Yap, the state of Chuuk comprises the Chuuk Islands and several outlying atolls. The Chuuk Islands are a group of 16 highly-eroded volcanic islands in a lagoon surrounded by a barrier reef (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014b); Chuuk State also includes 24 inhabited outer-island atolls. The total land area of the state is 49 square miles (Ridgell, 1995). The earliest inhabitants of Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae most likely came from the Marshall Islands in the east, having originated in Vanuatu and Fiji. Archaeological evidence of settlements dating back to the 1st century C.E. has been found on Chuuk (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014g). Historically Chuuk had a fierce reputation characterized by fighting among the islands of the lagoon. For this reason whites tended to avoid these islands, and when missionaries did come to Chuuk State they established missions on the outer islands first (Ridgell, 1995). During Japanese rule rice and sugarcane were planted extensively on the lagoon islands, and in preparation for World War II the Chuuk islands were heavily fortified by the Japanese. Over 60 ships were sunk in the lagoon during the war; today it draws scuba divers from around the world. (Ridgell, 1995). Approximately one half of the FSM population (about 53,500 people) lives in Chuuk State; it is the most populous state in the FSM (FSM Government, 2014b). Weno, the capital, is developed and has paved roads, electricity, and other modern amenities; many people from the outer islands go there for work (Ridgell, 1995). In addition to the Chuuk Islands in the lagoon, there are four main areas of the state. Atolls to the west of the Chuuk Islands are more traditional, identifying with the culture of the outlying Yapese atolls and sailing traditional oceangoing canoes over hundreds of miles. Their dialect is different from the Chuukese spoken by the people living in the Chuuk island lagoon. The atolls to the southeast, called the Mortlock atolls, speak a dialect closer to the lagoon Chuukese, but think of themselves as a different people. Lastly, located to the north of the lagoon are the Hall islands (Ridgell, 1995). Ethnic Chuukese/Mortlockese people comprise 49% of the FSM population (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014d).

State of Pohnpei: Pohnpei is made up of one large volcanic island and six outlying atolls, all of which are inhabited. Located 450 miles east of Chuuk, Pohnpei has a total land area of 133 square miles—mostly on Pohnpei Island (Ridgell, 1995). Thanks to ample rainfall and fertile volcanic soils the island of Pohnpei has lush, tropical foliage (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014j). The island is fertile and well-suited for agriculture, producing much food for local consumption (Ridgell, 1995). The low-lying coral atolls surrounding Pohnpei are wooded, supporting coconut palm trees (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014j). The earliest inhabitants of Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae most likely came from the Marshall Islands in the east, having originated in Vanuatu and Fiji (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014g). Pohnpei is famous for the ruins of an ancient city called Nan Madol, constructed of huge basalt rock crystals piled on one another like logs. Pohnpei was the only state in the FSM to vote against the COFA with the United States (defeating it by a narrow margin of 51% to 49%); however since the other three states voted for the Compact it is still binding on Pohnpei. Palakir, the capital of the FSM, is located on Pohnpei (Ridgell, 1995). There are numerous ethnic groups and languages spoken in the state of Pohnpei. In Pohnpei proper, the Pohnpeian language is spoken (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014d). People from the island of Pingelap speak Pingalapese, which is close to Pohnpeian but different (Ridgell, 1995). Polynesian languages are spoken on the atolls of Kapingamarangi and Nukuoro to the southwest of Pohnpei (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014g). Additionally, there is a sizable community of Mortlockese on Pohnpei as they were allowed to settle there after a typhoon hit the Mortlock atolls during the time of German rule (Ridgell, 1995). Approximately one third of the FSM population (about 34,500 people) lives in Pohnpei (FSM Government, 2014b). Ethnically, Pohnpeian people comprise 30% of the FSM population, and Polynesian people make up 1.6% (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014d).

State of Kosrae: Kosrae is the only state in the FSM which is made up of a single island. Kosrae is a hilly, volcanic island with an area of 42 square miles (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014e). The easternmost island in the FSM, Kosrae is located 350 miles east-southeast of Pohnpei. There are many rivers and waterfalls on Kosrae (Ridgell, 1995). The fertile soils of Kosrae make it ideal for growing oranges, taro, breadfruit, and bananas; it also has valuable timber resources (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014e). Although imports continue to increase, Kosrae produces much food for local consumption (Pacific Small Business Development Center, 2012). The earliest inhabitants of Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae most likely came from the Marshall Islands in the east, having originated in Vanuatu and Fiji (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014g). A frequent stop for whalers, the Kosraean population was reduced by disease from several thousand to a few hundred in the 19th century (Ridgell, 1995). The main Kosraean harbor of Lelu was once a whaling port, and remnants of old stone walls and dikes can be seen there (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014e). These basalt rock crystal ruins are similar to those found at Nan Madol in Pohnpei (Ridgell, 1995). The arrival of Protestant missionaries after the whalers in some ways helped the population to recover, albeit at the cost of losing many of their ancient customs and traditions. The missionaries’ influence persists to this day, as many Kosraeans are very religious (Ridgell, 1995). Approximately one tenth of the FSM population (about 7,700 people) lives in Kosrae (FSM Government, 2014b). Just as it is the only one-island state in the country, Kosrae is the only culturally and linguistically unified state in the FSM (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014g). Ethnically, Kosraean people comprise 6% of the FSM population (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014d).

Economy: Traditionally the people on the coral atolls of FSM lived on taro, breadfruit, banana, and coconut as well as fish and seafood. Local production of these crops continues to be a major source of subsistence for people living on the outlying islands. On larger volcanic islands the above crops are supplemented with cassava and sweet potato. Pigs, dogs, and poultry are also raised for food (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014g). In addition to traditional subsistence crops, the population relies on imports of rice and processed foods from U.S., Japan, South Korea, China, and the Philippines. Other major imports include machinery and transport equipment. The country’s few exports, which are outnumbered 10:1 by imports, are limited to marine products and, to a lesser extent, garments, copra, and betel nut (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014g). Part of the impetus for the formation of the Federated States of Micronesia is that, relative to other states in the region, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae have relatively fewer resources and no potential U.S. military bases (Ridgell, 1995). Today two thirds of the economic revenues of the country come from U.S. grant assistance, with most of the remainder coming from the sale of fishing rights to foreign vessels and the burgeoning tourism industry. The economy is concentrated in government service jobs, with some people engaged in small venture fishing operations or tourism. Presently there is a trend of migration from outlying islands to towns, as people seek schools and employment opportunities (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014g).

Political Affiliation: Under the Compact of Free Association, the United States provides defense and economic aid, while the FSM remains responsible for its own internal self-government (Ridgell, 1995). As an independent nation, the FSM has an ambassador to the United States but no delegate to the U.S. Congress. FSM citizens are not American citizens but they may freely migrate to the United States to live, work, and study (Wasem, 2004).

Geography: The Northern Mariana Islands are a group of 14 volcanic and raised coral islands (Ridgell, 1995) located about three-quarters of the way from Hawaiʻi to the Philippines. The islands have a total land area of 179 square miles (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014e). Located about 1,000 miles south of Japan, the island chain spans 375 miles. Guam, the southernmost island in the Marianas chain, is a separate political entity (Ridgell, 1995).

History: The original inhabitants of the Mariana Islands were Micronesians who arrived there between 3,000 and 4,000 years ago (Ridgell, 1995). Some archaeological evidence such as pottery similar to the style of Philippine ceramics suggests that these people may have originated in Southeast Asia (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014h). These native people, called Chamorros, carved large stone pillars arranged in parallel rows as structural supports for buildings. Called latte stones, these pillars are prevalent in Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands. Found only in the Marianas, latte can reach up to 16 feet in height. After Ferdinand Magellan’s brief stop at Guam in 1521, Spain declared the Marianas a colony in 1565, although there was no permanent settlement there until the arrival of Jesuit priests in 1668. The Jesuit priest Diego Luis de Sanvitores named the islands after the regent of Spain, Mariana of Austria, who had financed his mission. Conflicts erupted between native Chamorros and the Spanish settlers, leading to the Spanish Chamorro wars of 1680 to 1696 (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014h). During these wars the people of Saipan and Rota in the Northern Marianas were forcibly relocated to Guam by the Spanish (Ridgell, 1995). During this period the indigenous Chamorro population was also severely depleted as a result of diseases introduced by the Spanish. At the culmination of the wars, the Chamorro people were forced to swear an oath of allegiance to the king of Spain and adopt western dress and customs. At the end of the Spanish-American war in 1899, Germany purchased the Northern Mariana Islands while America retained possession of occupied Guam (Hezel, 2003). Interested in developing Copra for export, the Germans held the islands until the outbreak of World War I, when they were seized by Japan (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014h). The Japanese introduced extensive sugar cultivation to the islands. Many Japanese citizens were living in the islands at the outbreak of World War II, and Japan immediately captured Guam from the Americans. In June and July of 1944 the U.S. took Saipan from the Japanese in one of the bloodiest battles of the war (Ridgell, 1995). In 1947, the United Nations created a strategic-area trusteeship encompassing more than 2,000 islands situated between 1° and 22° N latitude and 130° and 172° E longitude (an area of about 3 million square miles). Administered by the U.S., the U.N. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) comprised the Marshall Islands, Palau, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, Kosrae, and the Mariana Islands (excluding Guam) (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014k). In 1975 the people of the Northern Mariana Islands voted to become a commonwealth in association with the United States (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014h).

Demographics: Most residents of CNMI live in the capital, Saipan, which together with the islands of Tinian and Rota comprise the primary population centers. Other inhabited islands include Anatahan, Alamagan, and Agrihan (Ridgell, 1995). Chamorro and English are the official languages, spoken by 24% and 17% of the population, respectively. Philippine languages are spoken by 33% of the population, with the remainder speaking other Pacific Island languages (10%), Chinese (7%), and other Asian languages (7%) (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014e). Over time the original Chamorro inhabitants of the islands mixed with Spanish, Mexican, and Filipino peoples; today their descendants make up about one-fifth of the population of the islands. About one quarter of the population is Chinese and another quarter are Filipino; the remainder are made up of Micronesian people who immigrated from Palau, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014h).

Economy: Approximately one quarter of the country’s GDP and one quarter of its workforce are employed in the tourism industry (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014e). Most tourists come from Japan, Korea, or America and go to Saipan or Rota (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014h). The garment industry is also a major source of exports. Until recently the country was exempt from many of the wage and labor regulations of the U.S. while still not being subject to duties and quotas imposed on foreign producers. This led to allegations of poor working conditions and labor practices, leading the U.S. government to enact minimum-wage and other legislation in 2007. As a result of this legislation (and infrastructure destruction from 2010 typhoons), production of garments and textiles has declined in recent years. Another major source of revenue is financial aid from the U.S. government. Small-scale agriculture operations produce coconuts, breadfruit, tomatoes, and melons; there are also several cattle ranches. The country relies on imports for food, construction equipment and materials, and petroleum products (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014e).

Political Affiliation: The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands enjoys a political union with the U.S. administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Insular Affairs. The commonwealth is self-governing and has a locally-elected governor, lieutenant governor, and legislature (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014e). When the full commonwealth status of the Northern Marianas Islands went into effect upon the dissolution of the TTPI in 1986, eligible residents of the islands became U.S. citizens (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014h). The Commonwealth has a non-voting delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives (Wasem, 2004).

Geography: Consisting of 29 low-lying coral atolls and five coral islands ordered in two chains (the Ralik chain to the west and the Ratak chain to the east), the Marshall Islands span several hundred miles from north to south. The easternmost country in Micronesia, the Marshalls comprise over 1,200 islands and islets with a total land area of 66 square miles (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014f). Only 24 of the country’s islands are inhabited (Ridgell, 1995). No part of any island in the Marshall group rises higher than 10 meters above sea level (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014c).

History: The Marshall Islands were first settled around 20-50 C.E. by Micronesians. The early inhabitants were skilled navigators who voyaged between the atolls in oceangoing canoes. Initial contact with Europeans came in 1529, when the islands were sighted by Spanish navigator Álvaro Saavedra (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014f). Due to their reputation for attacking ships, the Marshalls were largely avoided by outsiders early in their history (Ridgell, 1995). Partially explored by British naval captains John Marshall and Thomas Gilbert in 1788, the islands were frequented by American Whalers in the 1820s. In the 1850s the first Christian missionaries arrived from America. Under an agreement with Great Britain, Germany established a protectorate over the Marshalls in 1886. At the outbreak of World War I Japan moved to seize Germany’s colonial possessions in Micronesia, administering them under a mandate from the League of Nations. After occupation by U.S. forces during World War II, the Marshalls became part of the U.S. administered United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) in 1947 (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014f). A strategic-area trusteeship encompassing more than 2,000 islands situated between 1° and 22° N latitude and 130° and 172° E longitude (an area of about 3 million square miles), the (TTPI) comprised the Marshall Islands, Palau, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, Kosrae, and the Marianas islands (excluding Guam) (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014k). From 1946 and 1958, the United States conducted 67 nuclear explosive tests in the Marshall Islands, primarily on Bikini and Enewetak atolls. In 1954, one such test caused radioactive fallout to blow over the inhabited atolls of Rongelap and Utrik, which were subsequently evacuated. In the late 1960s cleanup efforts began, followed by resettlement operations. Presently only Enewetak and Utrik are inhabited. Residents of the Bikini atoll left soon after the attempted resettlement and residents of Rongelap chose to leave the island for good in 1985 (Embassy of the United States in the Marshall Islands, 2012). In 1978, residents of the Marshall Islands voted to separate from the TTPI, forming the Republic of The Marshall Islands (RMI) and adopting a constitutional form of internal self-government in 1979. A Compact of Free Association (COFA) with the United States was signed in 1982, approved in 1983, and fully implemented in 1986 (Ridgell, 1995). Under the COFA the United States provides defense and external security in exchange for financial aid and use of Kwajalein Atoll for military purposes. Today the U.S. Army Kwajalein Atoll (U.S.A.K.A.) Reagan Missile Test Site is a key part of the U.S. strategic missile defense system (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014c).

Demographics: RMI has two official languages. Marshallese is spoken by over 98% of the population, and English is spoken by some as a second language (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014c). Almost three quarters of the Marshallese population lives on the atolls of Majuro and Kwajalein. Many people are employed at the U.S. missile test site on Kwajalein. As a result of missionary influence starting in the 1850s, the Marshallese population today is largely Christian (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014f).

Economy: People living on atolls far from the two major population centers engage in subsistence fishing and farming. Major food crops include coconut, pandanus, breadfruit, and taro; people on the outer islands also raise pigs and poultry for food (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014f). Copra is the major export of the Marshall Islands; however the main source of economic revenue is the employment and rent generated by the U.S. base at Kwajalein. Some revenue also comes from commercial fishing in the large expanse of water comprising the Marshalls’ economic zone (Ridgell, 1995). The country relies on imports of machinery and transport equipment, fuel, and manufactured goods from the U.S., Japan, and Australia (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014f).

Political Affiliation: The Republic of the Marshall Islands is an independent country (Wasem, 2004). Since the dissolution of the TTPI in 1986, RMI has had internal self-governance, while under the COFA the U.S. is responsible for defense and external security. The U.S. also provides substantial financial assistance to the republic (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014f). The Marshallese people are citizens of the Republic of the Marshall Islands; while not U.S. citizens, they may migrate freely to the U.S. under the terms of the COFA (Wasem, 2004).

Geography: American Samoa consists of 7 volcanic islands and coral atolls in the western half of the Samoan Archipelago. Located in Polynesia in the south-central Pacific, American Samoa is approximately 1,600 miles northeast of New Zealand and 2,200 miles southwest of Hawaiʻi (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014a). American Samoa has a total land area of 76 square miles, 52 of which comprise the main island of Tutuila. Other inhabited islands include nearby Aunu‘u, Swain Island atoll to the north, and the three islands of the Manu’a group: Tau, Olosega, and Ofu, which are located about 62 miles east of Tutuila. The lone uninhabited island of American Samoa is Rose atoll, located far to the east of Tutuila (Ridgell, 1995).

History: The first settlers of the Samoan islands were Polynesian voyagers who arrived around 1,000 B.CE, most likely from Tonga. It is from Samoa that these same Polynesian voyagers are thought to have departed to settle much of eastern Polynesia, starting around 500 C.E. First contact with Europeans came in 1722, when the islands were sighted by the Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen. Sporadic contact with traders, beachcombers, and other European navigators followed. In the 1830s the first missionaries arrived at Tutuila, sent by the London Missionary society (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014a). Traditionally, Tutuila was a haven for chiefs exiled from the main Samoan islands of Savai’i and ‘Upolu to the west. The Manu’a islands were politically independent and had their own high chief (Ridgell, 1995). This changed in the late 1800s. Pago Pago has one of the best natural deep-water harbors in the South Pacific (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014a), leading the U.S., Germany, and Great Britain to vie for control of the Samoan Islands throughout the late 1800s. Eventually Great Britain withdrew its claim (Ridgell, 1995), and the U.S. signed a treaty for the establishment of a naval station at Pago Pago harbor in 1878. Without any input from the local chiefs, the U.S. and Germany unilaterally agreed in 1899 to divide the islands into eastern (now American) Samoa and Western Samoa (now Samoa). By 1904 the local chiefs had formally ceded all of the eastern islands to the United States, although congress did not formally accept the deeds of cession until 1929. From 1900-1951 the U.S. Navy exercised control over American Samoa; in 1951 control was transferred to the Department of the Interior, and a territorial governor with full powers to administer the territory was appointed. Demands from Samoans for a higher degree of self-rule led to the first gubernatorial election in 1977; since then all governors have been elected by the people. In 1981 American Samoa sent its first non-voting delegate to the U.S. Congress. In 2009 an undersea earthquake near Samoa generated a tsunami which caused extensive damage and flooding, especially on Tutuila (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014a), killing around 200 people (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014a).

Demographics: Most Samoans are bilingual in the Samoan language and English (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014a). Both are official languages. The population as of July 2014 is estimated to be approximately 54,500. Almost the entire population is Christian, a mixture of Christian Congregationalist (50%), Roman Catholic (20%), and Protestant and other denominations (30%) (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014a). The majority of the population (90%) is ethnic Samoan, with the remainder made up of Tongan, Asian, and European people (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014a). Over 40% of the population is foreign-born. Most come from Samoa, but there are also people from Tonga and other Pacific islands, the United States, and various Asian Countries (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014a). Samoan society is based around extended families (aiga) which are headed by communally-selected chiefs (matai). District councils (fono) made up of a group of matai control and run local affairs. The majority of Samoans live in coastal villages, with the exception of Pago Pago, the lone urban area (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014a).

Economy: The Samoan economy is strongly linked with the U.S. (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014a). Government jobs are the main source of employment (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014a). Canned tuna is American Samoa’s main export, and there are a number of fishing, processing, and cannery operations in American Samoa. Just two canneries account for 80% of the territory’s non-government employment. Tourism is developing but limited at present. The rest of the economy is organized in traditional Polynesian fashion, with more than 90% of the land communally owned (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014a), and family gardens producing coconuts, breadfruit, and yams. Taro, bananas, tropical fruits, and some vegetables are produced on a semi-commercial basis (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014a).

Political Affiliation: American Samoa is a U.S. Territory administered by the U.S. Department of Interior. Because it is an unincorporated territory, not all provisions of the U.S. Constitution apply there (Wasem, 2004). For example, residents of American Samoa cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections, although they may vote in democratic or republican primary elections (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014a). American Samoa has one non-voting delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives (Wasem, 2004). American Samoa is an unorganized territory, meaning that authority for its governance is under the U.S. Secretary of the Interior, who authorized the territory to draft its own constitution in 1967 (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014a). The people of American Samoa are U.S. nationals but not U.S. citizens.

Geography: Hawaiʻi is a chain of 8 volcanic islands and 124 islets located in the central Pacific ocean, 2,397 miles west of San Francisco and 5,293 miles east of Manila (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014d). It is the only major Polynesian island group located entirely in the northeast Pacific (Ridgell, 1995). Named after the largest of the eight major islands, the archipelago also includes the islands of Ni‘ihau, Kaua‘i, O‘ahu, Moloka‘i, Lānaʻi, Kaho‘olawe, and Maui; all are inhabited, with the exception of Kaho‘olawe. The total land area of the Hawaiian Islands is 6,468 square miles (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014d).

History: Around 400 C.E. or earlier, Polynesian voyagers from the Cook Islands, Tahiti-nui, and/or the Marquesas Islands settled in Hawai‘i, becoming its first inhabitants (Wilmshurst, Hunt, Lipo, & Anderson, 2011). By 900 C.E. trade and contact with Tahitian and other Polynesian peoples had been established. The early Hawaiian society was hierarchical, ruled by chiefs and priests who warred with each other for control of territory (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014d). In 1778 British Captain James Cook was the first European to visit the Hawaiian islands. Kamehameha Pai‘ea was the first Monarch of the Hawaiian islands, successfully unifying them into a kingdom in 1795. In the early 1800s American whaling fleets stopped at the islands (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014d). In 1820 the first missionaries arrived from Boston. The missionaries brought literacy to the Hawaiian islands, converted many people to Christianity, and acted to suppress native cultural practices such as hula (Menton & Tamura, 1999). Beginning with the missionaries, a minority of whites exerted increasing influence over the political and economic affairs of the nation, playing a role in the creation of a constitution in 1840 and the 1848 Great Mahele, or land division, which created a western-style private property system. This minority was also instrumental in the signing of a Reciprocity (or free-trade) Treaty with the United States in 1875, which benefited wealthy plantation owners (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014d). In 1893 the last of seven Hawaiian monarchs, Queen Lili‘oukalani, was overthrown by a small group of white Hawaiian Kingdom subjects with the help of marines landed from the USS Boston at the behest of U.S. Ambassador John L. Stevens (Menton & Tamura, 1999). After several failed attempts, Hawaiʻi was ostensibly annexed as a territory of the United States by a joint resolution of the U.S. Congress in 1898; no treaty of annexation was ever signed (Chock, 1995). The Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1920 created a government-sponsored homesteading program which offered land to native Hawaiians, defined as individuals with at least 50% native Hawaiian blood (Department of Hawaiian Home Lands, 2014). Hawaiʻi became the 50th U.S. state on August 21, 1959. Some scholars have argued that the 1959 statehood ballot used in the plebiscite was flawed, as it offered only two options (statehood or territorial status) and not “independence” or other “separate systems of self-government” as mandated by the United Nations (Trask, 2008). Beginning in the 1970s there was a resurgence of native Hawaiian language and customs, which continues to the present day (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014d).

Demographics: As of 2012, the state of Hawaiʻi had an estimated population of 1,360,300 (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014d). While the U.S. has no official national language, in the state of Hawaiʻi English is widely spoken and Hawaiian is an official language (Central Intelligence Agency, 2014g). One in four households in Hawaiʻi speak a language other than English at home. The most common languages spoken are Asian or Pacific Island languages, notably Japanese (4%), Tagalog (4%), Ilocano (4%), Chinese (2%), Korean (1%), Vietnamese (1%), Samoan (1%), and Hawaiian (1%). Additionally, 2% of the population speaks Spanish and 1% speaks some other Indo-European language (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Additionally, Hawaiian Pidgin (or Hawai‘i Creole English, HCE) is spoken by an estimated 600,000 people in the state (Sakoda & Siegel, 2003). Oahu is the most populous island with 72% of the state’s population, followed by the Big Island of Hawai’i (12%), Maui (10%), and Kaua‘i (5%). The combined population of Moloka‘i , Lana‘i, and Ni‘ihau represents less than 1% of all residents of the state (Hawai’i Visitors and Convention Bureau, 2011).

Economy: The largest industry in Hawaiʻi is tourism, which has grown steadily since World War II. Half of the hotels in the state are located in the vicinity of Waikiki, and cruise ships make regular stops at ports in the islands. Manufacturing on the islands ranges from small scale to heavy manufacturing including oil refineries, a concrete-pipe plant, and an aluminum-extrusion plant. Roughly one quarter of all workers in the state belong to a labor union (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014d). Although the majority of food consumed in the state is imported, there is a significant local agriculture sector producing Asian and local specialty foods, tropical fruits, coffee, macadamia nuts, and miscellaneous other crops for local consumption. Major exports include sugar, garments, flowers, and canned fish. Food, clothing, fuel, vehicles, and building materials are major imports. Hawaiʻi relies on imported fuel oil for most of its energy needs, although wind farms on Maui and O‘ahu and a geothermal plant on Hawaiʻi are examples of how the state is trying to increase the proportion of energy generated from renewable sources. The state government’s revenue comes primarily from a general excise tax, individual income taxes, and federal grants (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2014d).

Political Affiliation: As a U.S. state, Hawaiʻi has two Senators and two Representatives in the U.S. Congress. Citizens of Hawaiʻi are U.S. citizens. Unlike other native peoples in the United States, Native Hawaiians have never been granted the right of self-governance by the U.S. federal government (Wasem, 2004).

Pacific Islanders consumed many of the same traditional foods. This included various species of taro, yam, breadfruit, cassava, sweet potato, banana, plantain, pandanus and arrowroot. While they may have eaten the same foods at one time or another, foods were ranked differently in certain societies. Food selection was based on preference for one crop over another. For each society of the Pacific, one of the starchy foods was ranked more highly than the others, usually being breadfruit, Colocasia (taro) or yams. The less favored starches were ranked as secondary foods, usually including bananas and certain types of taro. These foods were cultivated when the primary foods were unavailable (Pollock, 1992).

Obesity is a global epidemic affecting both developed and developing countries (Wang & Lobstein, 2006; WHO, 2000). Despite the limited amount of data of obesity in Pacific Island populations, overweight and obesity prevalence rates have risen in recent decades alongside other non-communicable chronic diseases (e.g., type 2 diabetes) (Hodge, Dowse, Zimmet, & Collins, 1995; Pacific Islands Health Officers Association, 2010). Solutions to address and prevent obesity in the region include strategies to support healthy eating and active lifestyles through encouraging the consumption of traditional foods such as non-imported fruits, vegetables, and meats, as well as embracing culture and traditional physical activities like planting and fishing (Simmons et al., 2009; Swinburn et al., 2007). However, environmental and social changes in the Pacific Islands make discussions about what is considered a traditional food and what are acceptable practices in the diet sensitive and complex. It is important to understand changes in the food environment in the context of the respective cultures of the Pacific Islands, specifically within the United States Affiliated Pacific (USAP), before attempting any dietary recommendations as cultural relevancy increases the likelihood for a positive impact.

Nutrition transition refers to the shifts that have occurred in diet and in physical activity patterns. Modern societies have moved to diets high in saturated fats, sugar, and refined foods but low in fiber, and to lifestyles with lower activity levels (Popkin & Gordon-Larsen, 2004). These changes have been related to the shift from high prevalence patterns of infectious disease to non-communicable chronic disease (Popkin & Gordon-Larsen, 2004).

Cultural identity, migration, social-cultural factors, food security, globalization and trade, as well as colonialism have been implicated as influence themes of nutrition transition (Bruss, Morris, & Dannison, 2003; Cassels, 2006; Kahn & Sexton, 1988; Linnekin, 1983; Torsch, 2002). Therefore, understanding the nutrition transition in the USAP provides valuable insight on the changes in tradition and diet of the Region. Cultural identity involves how a person thinks and expresses oneself as part of a culture or group and may be shaped by processes of acculturation and enculturation. Acculturation refers to the changes in attitudes, behaviors, beliefs and values for an individual of one culture with a new culture (Williams & Berry, 1991), whereas enculturation refers to the process of socialization or re-socialization with the heritage culture norms (Cano et al., 2012; Herskovits, 1948). Levels of acculturation and enculturation for individuals vary but some integrate traditional heritage, while adopting some practices of the foreign culture. Some assimilate and adopt all of the practices and beliefs of the foreign culture but no longer identify with their traditional heritage. Conversely, others identify only with the traditional heritage regardless of the foreign practices or have no preference for either culture and are not concerned with any of the issues (Berry, 2003). As cultural revivalists search for an authentic heritage and rediscover culture, they also create it (Linnekin, 1983). Regardless, enculturation and/or acculturation influences nutrition transition as the integration of cultures and food throughout the generations leads to the evolvement of traditional into a contemporary sense.

The USAP is located in the areas of Micronesia and Polynesia. The region’s first settlers carried crops and animals to establish a subsistence foundation of farming and fishing (Kahn & Sexton, 1988). Early Pacific voyagers allowed for many ancient traditions to spread widely across the Pacific returning home with many types of plants and animals to cultivate and consume (Kahn & Sexton, 1988). However, each of the indigenous islands of the USAP has a long history of foreign influence and dependence. Countries like Spain, Germany, Japan, Britain and the United States (US) have occupied many of the islands making lasting impressions on the lifestyles and food system environments of the Pacific Islands; for example, foreign sailors, merchants, ambassadors, missionaries, and military brought shares of goods to the Pacific Islands from areas outside the Pacific. As a result, some crops, like guava, known to have originated in other areas of the world have become local and deemed traditional in Pacific Island food systems.

Even with these foreign influences, Pacific Island cultures still retain distinct social-cultural values. Food is viewed as a demonstration of love, generosity and care, while thinness is perceived as a result of illness or inadequate feeding (Bruss et al., 2003). The culture emphasizes the role of food in bringing families together but time has influenced drastic changes in diet composition and physical lifestyles of Pacific Islanders. This is becoming a common theme for Pacific Islanders who have a desire for cultural acceptance but also for balance to be healthy.

Part of the balance to be healthy includes being food secure. Natural disasters known to Pacific Islands, namely typhoons/hurricanes, earthquakes, droughts, high tides and floods, have repeatedly damaged island infrastructures and agricultural systems, which influences the local food supply. Depending on the magnitude, islands may be left flooded and barren. Several technologies protect plants and structures from the damaging effects of global climate change, but fewer people are investing in the soils for growing plants for food (Spennemann, 1998). Instead, people have resulted to the non-perishable goods of rice, canned meat, instant meals, and other imported goods as (Gittelsohn, Haberle, Vastine, Dyckman, & Palafox, 2003) they are not only convenient, but do not spoil in the event of a disaster, alleviating the fears of famine.

Ironically, some foods that are naturally available to Pacific Islanders, like fish, return back to the islands for sale as canned foods (Nero, Burton, Jonas, & Taulung, 2000). The lack of sufficient infrastructure to be globally competitive forces many Pacific Island nations to sell their fishing rights to foreign nations (Cassels, 2006). Some nations sell these resources to merchants for global trade, so that Pacific Islanders only receive a fraction of the their worth (Cassels, 2006). Despite the direct resource to fresh fish, people have become dependent on foreign nations for economic development and also imported food. Striving for a successful cash economy has become mixed with the belief that imported foods are superior to local foods. This increased reliance of imported foods rather than on traditional foods partially characterizes the dietary globalization and nutrition transition occurring in the region (Evans, Sinclair, Fusimalohi, & Liava’a, 2001).

To further elucidate these concepts, the following is an example of the Chamorro nutrition transition on Guam. The pre-colonial diet of ancient Chamorros was predominantly plant-based food, supplemented with animal foods comprised mostly of fish, crustaceans, fruit bat and birds (Cassels, 2006). Subsistence living, such as farming, fishing, hunting, roof thatching, woodcutting, creating pottery, and preparing food, involved physical activities for men, women, and children alike (Marsh, 2009). The arrival of Spanish colonizers brought the introduction of four-legged animals, mainly deer and pigs (Bevacqua, 2009). Then the Americans started training the first women to work jobs away from traditional household roles and responsibilities (Cruz, 2009). Meanwhile children started going to school, learning new languages, and adopting foods from visitors (Yamashita, 2009). The post-World War II era provided a gateway to both the Western diet and urbanization for many of the islands, to include regular screen time in households, sedentary jobs, and canned meats like Spam and corned beef. These canned and imported foods became valuable sources for food security when natural disasters, such as Super Typhoons Paka and Pongsona, swept through the island. Today, many Chamorros identify with Spam as part of the culture and diet, but are not consuming the variety of plant-based traditional foods from their indigenous ancestors.

The potential effects of nutrition transition on dietary lifestyles of indigenous peoples span a wide range. Traditional values and beliefs related to food and physical activity may be lost in modernization so that methods of food preparation and storage, amongst many other traditions, are not passed down to newer generations. There are also foods considered traditional today that may not have existed on the islands pre-colonization. However, the promotion of traditional foods and food related practices, whether they are indigenous or newly adopted, may be a positive reason for the revival and embrace of culture. The cultures of the region were known to have healthy diets, regular physical activity, and low prevalence rates of noncommunicable chronic disease. Continual efforts to empower cultures of the region will be beneficial to support positive change and health outcomes.

The diets of Pacific Islanders are continually changing. Knowledge and awareness of nutrition and the Pacific Island cultures, allows the possibility to balance the old with the new to achieve a healthy diet. The Pacific Food Guide aims to help make connections between Pacific traditional foods and nutrition. Tradition, no matter how authentic it is perceived, is ever changing and adaptable. Rather than being limited to any specific definition of what is traditional, there is an opportunity for cultures to grow and weave the diversity that prevails in the world today.