Apply the OLP in these units http://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/ en The Oceanic Crust and Seafloor http://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/oceanic-crust-and-seafloor <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--title--topic-page.html.twig x field--node--title.html.twig * field--node--topic-page.html.twig * field--title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-title field--type-string field--label-hidden">The Oceanic Crust and Seafloor</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--node--title.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-display-title--topic-page.html.twig * field--node--field-display-title.html.twig * field--node--topic-page.html.twig * field--field-display-title.html.twig * field--string.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-display-title field--type-string field--label-visually_hidden"> <div class="field__label visually-hidden">Title</div> <div class="field__item"><h2 class="page-title">The Oceanic Crust and Seafloor</h2> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--uid--topic-page.html.twig x field--node--uid.html.twig * field--node--topic-page.html.twig * field--uid.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-uid field--type-entity-reference field--label-hidden"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'username' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> <a title="View user profile." href="/exploringourfluidearth/users/fyang" class="username">fyang</a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/user/username.html.twig' --> </span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--node--uid.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--created--topic-page.html.twig x field--node--created.html.twig * field--node--topic-page.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field--created.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <span class="field field--name-created field--type-created field--label-hidden">Wed, 12/23/2015 - 12:00</span> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--node--created.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-standards-ngss-pe--topic-page.html.twig * field--node--field-standards-ngss-pe.html.twig * field--node--topic-page.html.twig * field--field-standards-ngss-pe.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-standards-ngss-pe field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">NGSS Performance Expectations</div> <div class="field__items"> <div class="field__item"><a href="/exploringourfluidearth/curriculum-alignment/ngss/pe/ms-ess2-1-develop-model-describe-cycling-earths-materials-and-flow-energy-drives-process" hreflang="en">MS-ESS2-1 Develop a model to describe the cycling of Earth&#039;s materials and the flow of energy that drives this process.</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/exploringourfluidearth/curriculum-alignment/ngss/pe/ms-ess3-1-construct-scientific-explanation-based-evidence-how-uneven-distributions-earths-mineral" hreflang="en">MS-ESS3-1 Construct a scientific explanation based on evidence for how the uneven distributions of Earth&#039;s mineral, energy, and groundwater resources are the result of past and current geoscience processes.</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/exploringourfluidearth/curriculum-alignment/ngss/pe/hs-ess2-1-develop-model-illustrate-how-earth-s-internal-and-surface-processes-operate-different" hreflang="en">HS-ESS2-1 Develop a model to illustrate how Earth’s internal and surface processes operate at different spatial and temporal scales to form continental and ocean-floor features.</a></div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/exploringourfluidearth/curriculum-alignment/ngss/pe/hs-ess2-5-plan-and-conduct-investigation-properties-water-and-its-effects-earth-materials-and" hreflang="en">HS-ESS2-5 Plan and conduct an investigation of the properties of water and its effects on Earth materials and surface processes.</a></div> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-standards-ngss-pe-linking--topic-page.html.twig * field--node--field-standards-ngss-pe-linking.html.twig * field--node--topic-page.html.twig * field--field-standards-ngss-pe-linking.html.twig * field--string.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-standards-ngss-pe-linking field--type-string field--label-visually_hidden"> <div class="field__label visually-hidden">NGSS PE Linking Sentence</div> <div class="field__item">The content and activities in this topic will work towards building an understanding of the rock cycle and movement of crustal rocks on Earth.</div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--body--topic-page.html.twig * field--node--body.html.twig * field--node--topic-page.html.twig * field--body.html.twig x field--text-with-summary.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-body field--type-text-with-summary field--label-visually_hidden"> <div class="field__label visually-hidden">Body</div> <div class="field__item"><h2>Composition and Layers of Oceanic Crust</h2> <p>The crust is the outermost layer of Earth above the mantle. As discussed earlier, crust can be divided into two types: continental crust and oceanic crust. The <strong>continental crust</strong> ranges from 25 to 70 km thick and makes up a total of approximately 70 percent of Earth’s total crust volume, though it only covers about 40 percent of the planet’s surface area. The <strong>oceanic crust</strong> is much thinner, ranging from 5 to 10 km thick.<br />  </p> <p>The continental crust has an average density of 2.7 g/cm<sup>3</sup> and is composed primarily of felsic rock. <strong>Felsic rock</strong> is rich in light elements such as silicon, aluminum, oxygen, sodium, and potassium. The presence of these lighter elements is responsible for continental crust being slightly less dense than oceanic crust, which has an average density of 2.9 g/cm<sup>3</sup>.<br />  </p> <p> </p> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--half-w-caption.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--half-w-caption.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-half-w-caption"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.55-Ophiolite.jpeg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/half_page_width/public/M1U7-Fig7.55-Ophiolite.jpeg?itok=rKYvJ1x3" width="290" height="194" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.55.&lt;/strong&gt; An ophiolite rock complex is located on the island of Cyprus. Ophiolites are areas where oceanic crust has been thrust above the continental crust.&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Image courtesy of MeanStreets, &lt;a data-cke-saved-href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Geology_of_Cyprus-Ophiolite_Sheeted_dyke_complex.jpg&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Geology_of_Cyprus-Ophiolite_Sheeted_dyke_complex.jpg&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;Wikimedia Commons&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-half-page-width" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.55.</strong> An ophiolite rock complex is located on the island of Cyprus. Ophiolites are areas where oceanic crust has been thrust above the continental crust.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Image courtesy of MeanStreets, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Geology_of_Cyprus-Ophiolite_Sheeted_dyke_complex.jpg" target="_blank">Wikimedia Commons</a></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --><p>Oceanic crust is primarily composed of more dense rock, which forms distinct layers. As of 2014, geologists had not been able to successfully drill through the oceanic crust to the mantle. The deepest that scientists have been able to drill is approximately two kilometers. Much of what scientists know about the oceanic crust today has been discovered by observation and inference. <strong>Ophiolites</strong>, for example, are portions of the oceanic crust that have been uplifted and exposed above sea level, often above continental crust (Fig. 7.55). By observing ophiolites and data from existing drills and seismic information, scientists can infer characteristics of the oceanic crust, in particular layering.</p> <hr /><h2>Life Cycle of the Oceanic Crust</h2> <p> </p> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--colorbox-small.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--colorbox-small.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-colorbox-small"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-visually_hidden"> <div class="field__label visually-hidden">Image</div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.56-RockCycle.jpg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/quarter_200w_/public/M1U7-Fig7.56-RockCycle.jpg?itok=tnUCuA14" width="135" height="130" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.56.&lt;/strong&gt; Diagram of the rock cycle&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Image by Narrissa Spies&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-quarter-200w-" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.56.</strong> Diagram of the rock cycle</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Image by Narrissa Spies</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --><p>All rocks in Earth’s crust are constantly being recycled through the rock cycle. The <strong>rock cycle</strong> is the transition of rocks among three different rock types over millions of years of geologic time (Fig. 7.56). <strong>Igneous</strong> rock is formed by the cooling and crystallization of molten magma at volcanoes and mid-ocean ridges, where new crust is generated. Examples of igneous rock are basalt, granite, and andesite (Fig. 7.57 A). Over time, igneous rocks may experience weathering and erosion from exposure to water and the atmosphere to produce sediments. The deposition and hardening of these sediments forms <strong>sedimentary</strong> rocks (Fig. 7.57 B). Both igneous and sedimentary rock types can transform physically and chemically into a third rock type. <strong>Metamorphic rocks</strong> are formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks are exposed to conditions of high heat and pressure. Examples of metamorphic rock include marble, slate, schist, and gneiss (Fig. 7.57 C). Metamorphic rocks can also transform to sedimentary rocks through weathering, erosion, and sediment deposition (Fig. 7.56).</p> <p> </p> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--colorbox-small.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--colorbox-small.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-colorbox-small"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-visually_hidden"> <div class="field__label visually-hidden">Image</div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.57A-Basalt.jpg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/quarter_200w_/public/M1U7-Fig7.57A-Basalt.jpg?itok=-FNxb1OM" width="135" height="95" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.57.&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;A&lt;/strong&gt;) Basalt, an example of igneous rock, from Mauna Ulu Lava Field, East Rift Zone, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Image courtesy of James St. John, &lt;a data-cke-saved-href=&quot;https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/15025522485&quot; href=&quot;https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/15025522485&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;Flickr&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-quarter-200w-" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.57.</strong> (<strong>A</strong>) Basalt, an example of igneous rock, from Mauna Ulu Lava Field, East Rift Zone, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Image courtesy of James St. John, <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/15025522485" target="_blank">Flickr</a></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--colorbox-small.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--colorbox-small.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-colorbox-small"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-visually_hidden"> <div class="field__label visually-hidden">Image</div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.57B-Sandstone.jpg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/quarter_200w_/public/M1U7-Fig7.57B-Sandstone.jpg?itok=5GgiWG1u" width="135" height="95" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.57.&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt;) Sandstone, an example of sedimentary rock, Jackson County, Ohio&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Image courtesy of Dr. Mark A. Wilson, College of Wooster, &lt;a data-cke-saved-href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Logan_Formation_Cross_Bedding_Scour.jpg&quot; href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Logan_Formation_Cross_Bedding_Scour.jpg&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;Wikimedia Commons&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-quarter-200w-" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.57.</strong> (<strong>B</strong>) Sandstone, an example of sedimentary rock, Jackson County, Ohio</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Image courtesy of Dr. Mark A. Wilson, College of Wooster, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Logan_Formation_Cross_Bedding_Scour.jpg" target="_blank">Wikimedia Commons</a></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--colorbox-small.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--colorbox-small.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-colorbox-small"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-visually_hidden"> <div class="field__label visually-hidden">Image</div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.57C-Marble.jpg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/quarter_200w_/public/M1U7-Fig7.57C-Marble.jpg?itok=GZvxamZg" width="135" height="95" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.57.&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;C&lt;/strong&gt;) Marble, an example of metamorphic rock, Czech Republic&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Image courtesy of Roll-Stone, &lt;a data-cke-saved-href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saubsdorfer-Marmor.jpg&quot; href=&quot;https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saubsdorfer-Marmor.jpg&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;Wikimedia Commons&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-quarter-200w-" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.57.</strong> (<strong>C</strong>) Marble, an example of metamorphic rock, Czech Republic</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Image courtesy of Roll-Stone, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saubsdorfer-Marmor.jpg" target="_blank">Wikimedia Commons</a></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --><hr /><p> </p> <p> </p> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--half-w-caption.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--half-w-caption.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-half-w-caption"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.58-LithosphereAge.jpg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/half_page_width/public/M1U7-Fig7.58-LithosphereAge.jpg?itok=ekh_ymTI" width="290" height="185" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.58.&lt;/strong&gt; The age of oceanic crust in millions of years. The youngest crust (shown in red) is near mid ocean ridges and spreading zones.&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Image courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (&lt;a data-cke-saved-href=&quot;http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/ocean_age/ocean_age_2008.html&quot; href=&quot;http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/ocean_age/ocean_age_2008.html&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;NOAA&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-half-page-width" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.58.</strong> The age of oceanic crust in millions of years. The youngest crust (shown in red) is near mid ocean ridges and spreading zones.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Image courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/ocean_age/ocean_age_2008.html" target="_blank">NOAA</a>)</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --><p>All three rock types in the earth’s crust—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic—can also be recycled back to their original molten magma form. This process occurs when oceanic crust is pushed back into the mantle at subduction zones. As old oceanic crust is subducted and melted into magma, new oceanic crust in the form of igneous rock is formed at mid-ocean ridges and volcanic hotspots. This recycling accounts for the recycling of 60 percent of Earth’s surface every 200 million years, making the oldest recorded oceanic crust rock roughly the same age. Because of this recycling, the age of the oceanic crust varies depending on location. Areas where new crust is being formed at mid-ocean ridges are much younger than zones further away (Fig. 7.58). By contrast, continental crust is rarely recycled and is typically much older. The oldest recorded rocks on Earth are all located on continental crust in northern Canada and western Australia and date to approximately 3.8 to 4.4 billion years old.</p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <figcaption data-placeholder="Enter caption here"><p> </p> </figcaption><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/filter-caption.html.twig' --><p><span style="background:rgba(220,220,220,0.5);background-image:url(http://manoa.hawaii.edu/testeofe/core/assets/vendor/ckeditor/plugins/widget/images/handle.png);display:none;"><a href="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAPABAP///wAAACH5BAEKAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw=="><img alt="" height="15" role="presentation" src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAPABAP///wAAACH5BAEKAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAICRAEAOw==" title="Click and drag to move" width="15" /></a></span></p> <p> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'entity_embed_container' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/entity-embed-container.html.twig' --> </p><div class="action-background"> <div id="node-1378" class="node node-activity-page special-feature-type-activity contextual-links-region clearfix special-feature-type- " data-embed-button="node" data-entity-embed-display="entity_reference:entity_reference_label" data-entity-embed-display-settings="{&quot;link&quot;:1}" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="4f4299fb-8cb2-4a82-a8fb-e9d1bb670947" data-langcode="und"> <div class="embed-type-marker"><i class="icon white"></i></div> <div class="embed-supertitle"> Activity</div> <h2 class="embed-title"> <a target="_blank" href="/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/oceanic-crust-and-seafloor/activity-crayon-rock-cycle" hreflang="und">Crayon Rock Cycle</a> </h2> <div class="field-item even"><p>Simulate the rock cycle using crayons to build an understanding of the processes that occur to create sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rock.</p></div> <div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/entity-embed-container.html.twig' --> </div></div><br /><h2>Deep Sea Sediment</h2> <p> </p> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--half-w-caption.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--half-w-caption.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-half-w-caption"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.59-SedimentCoreDescription.jpg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/half_page_width/public/M1U7-Fig7.59-SedimentCoreDescription.jpg?itok=GXzdAjuR" width="290" height="192" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.59.&lt;/strong&gt; Deep sea sediment cores can give scientists valuable information about the composition of the seafloor. Notice the various layers of sediment in the figure.&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Image courtesy of Dr. Hannes Grobe, Alfred Wegener Institute, &lt;a data-cke-saved-href=&quot;http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sediment-core-description_hg.jpg&quot; href=&quot;http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sediment-core-description_hg.jpg&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;Wikimedia Commons&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-half-page-width" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.59.</strong> Deep sea sediment cores can give scientists valuable information about the composition of the seafloor. Notice the various layers of sediment in the figure.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Image courtesy of Dr. Hannes Grobe, Alfred Wegener Institute, <a href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sediment-core-description_hg.jpg" target="_blank">Wikimedia Commons</a></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --><p><strong>Sediments</strong> are naturally occurring materials that have been broken down into smaller pieces. One feature of the oceanic crust that scientists have been able to explore in detail is deep sea sediment, often through examination of deep sea sediment cores (Fig. 7.59).</p> <p> </p> <p>The two most common types of sediment on the ocean floor are lithogenous sediments, derived from rocks, and biogenous sediments, which are derived from living organisms.</p> <hr /><p> </p> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--half-w-caption.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--half-w-caption.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-half-w-caption"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.60-MississippiRiverDelta.jpg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/half_page_width/public/M1U7-Fig7.60-MississippiRiverDelta.jpg?itok=k0p1CloO" width="290" height="213" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.60.&lt;/strong&gt; Intense rainfall and melting snow can increase sediment runoff into the ocean. This image is from the Mississippi river delta.&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Image courtesy of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), &lt;a data-cke-saved-href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mississippi_River_Delta_and_Sediment_Plume.jpg&quot; href=&quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mississippi_River_Delta_and_Sediment_Plume.jpg&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;Wikimedia Commons&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-half-page-width" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.60.</strong> Intense rainfall and melting snow can increase sediment runoff into the ocean. This image is from the Mississippi river delta.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Image courtesy of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mississippi_River_Delta_and_Sediment_Plume.jpg" target="_blank">Wikimedia Commons</a></p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --><p><strong>Lithogenous</strong> sediments are small rocks and minerals that are the result of erosion and weathering of the continental crust. Lithogenous sediments can be carried to the ocean by runoff, rivers, and wind. Large plumes of lithogenous sediments can often be observed near shorelines after large rain events (Fig. 7.60).</p> <p> </p> <p>Lithogenous sediments remain in suspension and cause high water turbidity because they are in constant movement due to currents or shoreline surf. When they reach the coastline and relatively calmer water they begin to settle out. Larger particles like rocks and sand settle out very near the shore while smaller particles settle out further away. Since small particles sink slowly, ocean currents can transport lithogenous sediments over a long distance. Small particles (&lt; 4 micrometers) known as <strong>abyssal clay</strong> make up a large portion of the sediment on the ocean floor. Prior to the theory of plate tectonics, early scientists suggested that since continental erosion was continually taking place, lithogenous sediments should constantly be filling in ocean basins resulting in a very thick layer of sediment. However, early sediment cores revealed a much thinner layer of sediment than expected. This provided further evidence that continental crust was continually being recycled, along with the sediment layer.</p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--half-w-caption.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--half-w-caption.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-half-w-caption"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.61-marinesnow.jpg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/half_page_width/public/M1U7-Fig7.61-marinesnow.jpg?itok=7M9eRAj5" width="290" height="146" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.61.&lt;/strong&gt; Marine snow is made of biogenous particles that clump together and gradually sink to the ocean floor.&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Image courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (&lt;a data-cke-saved-href=&quot;http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/marinesnow.jpg&quot; href=&quot;http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/marinesnow.jpg&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;NOAA&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-half-page-width" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.61.</strong> Marine snow is made of biogenous particles that clump together and gradually sink to the ocean floor.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Image courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/marinesnow.jpg" target="_blank">NOAA</a>)</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --><p><strong>Biogenous</strong> sediments, also sometimes referred to as “oozes,” are composed primarily of the remains of living organisms—phytoplankton and zooplankton. When plants and animals die, their remains slowly sink to the seafloor. Bacteria consume much of the <strong>organic matter</strong>—the carbon-based parts of the organisms, which helps to cycle carbon back into the biological system. Particles that remain are composed of harder structures like shells and skeletons. They fall into two categories: <strong>calcareous</strong> if the skeleton was made of calcium carbonate, and <strong>siliceous</strong> if the skeleton was made from silicates. As small particles sink they tend to aggregate into clumps that are visible to the naked eye. Deep sea researchers first noticed this phenomenon in manned submersibles and coined the term marine snow to describe the particles constantly showering down (Fig. 7.61).</p> <p> </p> <p>For more detail about sediments, see <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/physical/coastal-interactions/beaches-and-sand" target="_blank">Beaches and Sand</a>, and also <span style="background-color:#ffff00;">Module 2 Unit 7: Seafloor Chemistry Topic 7.1 Types of Sediment</span>.</p> <p> </p> <p>Calcareous and siliceous compounds have unique properties in ocean water. Both substances dissolve as they sink, but at different rates depending on temperature. Only approximately one percent of biogenous remains become sediments. Calcium carbonate dissolves rapidly in cold water that is rich in CO2 and at high pressure, but is relatively common as a solid in warm water. The depth at which calcium completely dissolves is known as the <strong>calcium compensation depth</strong> (<strong>CCD</strong>). Consequently, calcareous sediments are not frequently found in deep sea sediments below the CCD. The depth of the CCD varies. In the Pacific ocean basin it ranges from approximately 4.2–4.5 km deep. Some seafloor features such as mid-ocean ridges, volcanoes, and seamounts may rise above the CCD; these are areas where calcareous sediments can be deposited. Siliceous compounds are different than calcareous compounds because they dissolve faster in warm water than cold water, therefore they can be common in both deep sea sediments and in shallower areas where there is a lot of upwelling of cool water.</p> <p> </p> <p> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'entity_embed_container' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/entity-embed-container.html.twig' --> </p><div class="action-background"> <div id="node-1380" class="node node-activity-page special-feature-type-activity contextual-links-region clearfix special-feature-type- " data-embed-button="node" data-entity-embed-display="entity_reference:entity_reference_label" data-entity-embed-display-settings="{&quot;link&quot;:1}" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="24601017-5cfe-4eca-bbb2-5bb81e18d9c3" data-langcode="und"> <div class="embed-type-marker"><i class="icon white"></i></div> <div class="embed-supertitle">Activity</div> <h2 class="embed-title"> <a target="_blank" href="/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/oceanic-crust-and-seafloor/activity-sediment-cores" hreflang="und">Sediment Cores</a> </h2> <div class="field-item even"><p>Simulate taking sediment cores in the ocean to build an understanding of sediment layering and sediment core sampling.</p></div> <div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/entity-embed-container.html.twig' --> </div></div><p>  </p> <h2>Seafloor Volcanoes and Hydrothermal Vents</h2> <p>Mid-ocean ridges and spreading zones are home to hydrothermal vents. <strong>Hydrothermal vents</strong> in the ocean are analogous to geysers and hot springs on continents where groundwater percolates up to 2 km below the surface to areas that are very hot. The resulting boiling water and steam rush to the surface. At hydrothermal vents, cool seawater percolates down in fissures and cracks created by the spreading seafloor. As water moves down, it is heated from geothermal sources, reaching temperatures as high as 400 °C. Throughout this process, minerals like copper, zinc, iron, and sulfur dissolve in the water. Although the water is very hot, it does not boil due to the high hydrostatic pressure. When the super heated water rises out through the vents because it is buoyant, it meets relatively cold and oxygen rich ocean water and many of the dissolved minerals precipitate out as particles. If the majority of precipitates are sulfides and have a black color, the vents are known as <strong>black smokers</strong> due to their dark billowing appearance (Fig. 7.63 A). <strong>White smokers</strong> emit minerals with lighter hues (Fig. 7.63 B). In some cases these particles combine to form chimney structures around the vents (Fig. 7.64). In 2000 scientists discovered a field of chimneys in the Atlantic ocean basin that had reached 55 meters tall. Hydrothermal vents are found in spreading regions on the seafloor.</p> <p> </p> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--half-w-caption.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--half-w-caption.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-half-w-caption"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.63A-BlackSmoker.jpg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/half_page_width/public/M1U7-Fig7.63A-BlackSmoker.jpg?itok=UN9kqjRr" width="290" height="218" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.63.&lt;/strong&gt; (&lt;strong&gt;A&lt;/strong&gt;) Black smokers emit dark sulfides, Sully Vent in the Main Endeavour Vent Field, northeast Pacific ocean basin.&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Images courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (&lt;a data-cke-saved-href=&quot;http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/eoi/gallery/smoker-images.html&quot; href=&quot;http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/eoi/gallery/smoker-images.html&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;NOAA&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-half-page-width" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.63.</strong> (<strong>A</strong>) Black smokers emit dark sulfides, Sully Vent in the Main Endeavour Vent Field, northeast Pacific ocean basin.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Images courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/eoi/gallery/smoker-images.html" target="_blank">NOAA</a>)</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--half-w-caption.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--half-w-caption.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-half-w-caption"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.63B-WhiteSmoker.jpg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/half_page_width/public/M1U7-Fig7.63B-WhiteSmoker.jpg?itok=SOxOAP2s" width="290" height="218" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.63.&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;nbsp;(&lt;strong&gt;B&lt;/strong&gt;) White smokers emit minerals such as barium, calcium, and silicon, Champagne Vent, Marianas Islands Marine National Monument.&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Images courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (&lt;a data-cke-saved-href=&quot;http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04fire/logs/april12/media/champagne_vent.html&quot; href=&quot;http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04fire/logs/april12/media/champagne_vent.html&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;NOAA&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-half-page-width" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.63.</strong> (<strong>B</strong>) White smokers emit minerals such as barium, calcium, and silicon, Champagne Vent, Marianas Islands Marine National Monument.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Images courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04fire/logs/april12/media/champagne_vent.html" target="_blank">NOAA</a>)</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --><p> </p> <hr /><p> </p> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--half-w-caption.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--half-w-caption.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-half-w-caption"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.64-chimneys.jpg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/half_page_width/public/M1U7-Fig7.64-chimneys.jpg?itok=FLmxs5vf" width="290" height="218" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.64.&lt;/strong&gt; Deep sea chimneys measuring 9 m tall from base to tip, East Diamante Volcano, Marianas Islands Marine National Monument. Chimneys form at hydrothermal vents when particles dissolved in the superheated fluid from the vent meets cold ambient water and precipitates out.&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Image courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (&lt;a data-cke-saved-href=&quot;http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04fire/logs/april05/media/five_towers.html&quot; href=&quot;http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04fire/logs/april05/media/five_towers.html&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;NOAA&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-half-page-width" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.64.</strong> Deep sea chimneys measuring 9 m tall from base to tip, East Diamante Volcano, Marianas Islands Marine National Monument. Chimneys form at hydrothermal vents when particles dissolved in the superheated fluid from the vent meets cold ambient water and precipitates out.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Image courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04fire/logs/april05/media/five_towers.html" target="_blank">NOAA</a>)</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--half-w-caption.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--half-w-caption.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="align-left media media--type-image media--view-mode-half-w-caption"><!-- THEME DEBUG --><!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --><!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --><!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --><div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-hidden field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/M1U7-Fig7.65-Vents.jpg" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/half_page_width/public/M1U7-Fig7.65-Vents.jpg?itok=JPu3q94x" width="290" height="218" alt="&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Fig. 7.65.&lt;/strong&gt; Deep sea vents, such as this one in the Galapagos Islands, are home to diverse communities of crabs, mussels, tube worms, microbes, and many other species.&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" title="&lt;p&gt;Image courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (&lt;a data-cke-saved-href=&quot;https://www.flickr.com/photos/noaaphotolib/9660806745/in/set-72157635360690997&quot; href=&quot;https://www.flickr.com/photos/noaaphotolib/9660806745/in/set-72157635360690997&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;NOAA&lt;/a&gt;)&lt;/p&gt;&#10;" class="image-style-half-page-width" /></div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-alttext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-alttext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-alttext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-alttext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p><strong>Fig. 7.65.</strong> Deep sea vents, such as this one in the Galapagos Islands, are home to diverse communities of crabs, mussels, tube worms, microbes, and many other species.</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-titletext--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-titletext.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-titletext.html.twig x field--text-long.html.twig * field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> <div class="clearfix text-formatted field field--name-field-media-titletext field--type-text-long field--label-hidden field__item"><p>Image courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/noaaphotolib/9660806745/in/set-72157635360690997" target="_blank">NOAA</a>)</p> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-long.html.twig' --> </article><!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --><hr /><p> </p> <p>One of the most surprising discoveries for scientists, who first looked at photographs of hydrothermal vents, was the highly productive benthic community surrounding them. Many types of organisms have adapted to live in these extreme habitats. These include crabs, mollusks, and worms (Fig. 7.65). The base of the food web in these communities are microorganisms or microbes that use compounds, particularly hydrogen sulfide and methane, from the vents and convert them to useable energy and food. In virtually every other ecosystem on Earth, the ultimate source of energy is the sun. Some vent tube worms have adapted so they are entirely dependent on symbiotic microbes that convert hydrogen sulfide and methane into food (Fig. 7.65). The worm provides a suitable environment and steady supply of nutrients to the microorganisms and the microbes supply the worm with food.</p> <p> </p> <p>Scientists discovered the first hydrothermal vents in 1976 at the 2.5 km deep Galapagos rift in the east Pacific ocean basin. These vents were discovered when scientists observed unusual hotspots during a deep water survey. Subsequent dives using submersibles allowed scientists to view hydrothermal vents firsthand.</p> <p> </p> <p>For more information on deep sea ecosystems see <span style="background-color:#ffff00;">Module 4 Unit 4: Aquatic Ecosystems, Topic 4.4 Offshore Marine Ecosystems.</span></p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'entity_embed_container' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/entity-embed-container.html.twig' --> </p><div class="action-background"> <div id="node-1382" class="node node-question-set special-feature-type-question-set contextual-links-region clearfix special-feature-type- " data-embed-button="node" data-entity-embed-display="entity_reference:entity_reference_label" data-entity-embed-display-settings="{&quot;link&quot;:1}" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="f6fe7c0d-4671-47f1-8ea4-d6c8d70df875" data-langcode="und"> <div class="embed-type-marker"><i class="icon white"></i></div> <div class="embed-supertitle">Question Set</div> <h2 class="embed-title"> <a target="_blank" href="/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/oceanic-crust-and-seafloor/question-set-oceanic-crust-and-seafloor" hreflang="und">The Oceanic Crust and Seafloor</a> </h2> <div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/entity-embed-container.html.twig' --> </div></div> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'entity_embed_container' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/entity-embed-container.html.twig' --> <div class="action-background"> <div id="node-1383" class="node node-special-feature-page special-feature-type-compare-contrast-connect contextual-links-region clearfix special-feature-type- " data-embed-button="node" data-entity-embed-display="entity_reference:entity_reference_label" data-entity-embed-display-settings="{&quot;link&quot;:1}" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="36be8676-36e6-4fe5-8ae9-a8f50f4fe07f" data-langcode="und"> <div class="embed-type-marker"><i class="icon white"></i></div> <div class="embed-supertitle">Compare-Contrast-Connect</div> <h2 class="embed-title"> <a target="_blank" href="/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/oceanic-crust-and-seafloor/compare-contrast-connect-minerals-and-rocks" hreflang="und">Minerals and Rocks</a> </h2> <div class="field-item even"><p></p></div> <div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/entity-embed-container.html.twig' --> </div></div> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'entity_embed_container' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/entity-embed-container.html.twig' --> <div class="action-background"> <div id="node-1384" class="node node-special-feature-page special-feature-type-weird-science contextual-links-region clearfix special-feature-type- " data-embed-button="node" data-entity-embed-display="entity_reference:entity_reference_label" data-entity-embed-display-settings="{&quot;link&quot;:1}" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="c851669e-616e-4832-a721-7c0a99c2b6f3" data-langcode="und"> <div class="embed-type-marker"><i class="icon white"></i></div> <div class="embed-supertitle">Weird Science</div> <h2 class="embed-title"> <a target="_blank" href="/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/oceanic-crust-and-seafloor/weird-science-oceanic-microfossils" hreflang="und">Oceanic Microfossils</a> </h2> <div class="field-item even"><p></p></div> <div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/entity-embed-container.html.twig' --> </div></div> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'entity_embed_container' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/entity-embed-container.html.twig' --> <div class="action-background"> <div id="node-1385" class="node node-special-feature-page special-feature-type-further-investigations contextual-links-region clearfix special-feature-type- " data-embed-button="node" data-entity-embed-display="entity_reference:entity_reference_label" data-entity-embed-display-settings="{&quot;link&quot;:1}" data-entity-type="node" data-entity-uuid="0ddce564-3704-4cfb-8c74-0abadcedd5e7" data-langcode="und"> <div class="embed-type-marker"><i class="icon white"></i></div> <div class="embed-supertitle">Further Investigations</div> <h2 class="embed-title"> <a target="_blank" href="/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-floor/oceanic-crust-and-seafloor/further-investigations-oceanic-crust-and-seafloor" hreflang="und">The Oceanic Crust and Seafloor</a> </h2> <div class="field-item even"><p></p></div> <div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/entity-embed-container.html.twig' --> </div></div><p> </p> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/field--text-with-summary.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-toc--topic-page.html.twig * field--node--field-toc.html.twig * field--node--topic-page.html.twig * field--field-toc.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-toc field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">Table of Contents</div> <div class="field__item"><a href="/exploringourfluidearth/toc/physical/ocean-floor/oceanic-crust-and-seafloor" hreflang="en">The Oceanic Crust and Seafloor</a></div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--node--field-representative-image--topic-page.html.twig * field--node--field-representative-image.html.twig * field--node--topic-page.html.twig * field--field-representative-image.html.twig * field--entity-reference.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-representative-image field--type-entity-reference field--label-above"> <div class="field__label">Representative Image</div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'media' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * media--source-image.html.twig * media--image--default.html.twig * media--image.html.twig * media--default.html.twig x media.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> <article class="media media--type-image media--view-mode-default"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'field' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: * field--media--field-media-image--image.html.twig * field--media--field-media-image.html.twig * field--media--image.html.twig * field--field-media-image.html.twig * field--image.html.twig x field.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <div class="field field--name-field-media-image field--type-image field--label-visually_hidden"> <div class="field__label visually-hidden">Image</div> <div class="field__item"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_formatter' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> <a href="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/Rep_OceanicCrust_0.png" target="_blank"> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image_style' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'image' --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <div class="imgpost"> <span class="img-overlay-lightbox"></span> <img loading="lazy" src="/exploringourfluidearth/sites/default/files/styles/1_quarter_page/public/Rep_OceanicCrust_0.png?itok=M20kk1c5" width="135" height="62" class="image-style-_-quarter-page" /> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/field/image-style.html.twig' --> </a> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/image-formatter.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> </article> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/media.html.twig' --> </div> </div> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'themes/tsi/templates/field.html.twig' --> <!-- THEME DEBUG --> <!-- THEME HOOK: 'links__node' --> <!-- FILE NAME SUGGESTIONS: x links--node.html.twig x links--node.html.twig * links.html.twig --> <!-- BEGIN OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> <!-- END OUTPUT from 'core/themes/classy/templates/content/links--node.html.twig' --> Wed, 23 Dec 2015 22:00:39 +0000 fyang 1377 at http://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth